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Sources & bibliography

Content version gemmology-knowledge v1.4.4

This page lists every peer-reviewed article, book, standard, and vetted online reference cited across the learn section of gemmology.dev. All factual claims in those articles -- numerical data, optical constants, crystal properties, and identification criteria -- are traceable to one or more entries below. DOIs link to the authoritative record via doi.org; ISBNs link to the WorldCat catalogue. Each entry shows which learn articles cite it so you can trace a claim back to its source.

Journal articles

  1. (1949). Chelsea Colour Filter. Journal of Gemmology, 2(2), 62. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1949.2.2.62.

    Cited in: Chelsea Colour Filter

  2. Abduriyim, A.; Kitawaki, H.; Furuya, M.; Schwarz, D. (2006). "Paraíba"-Type Copper-Bearing Tourmaline from Brazil, Nigeria, and Mozambique: Chemical Fingerprinting by LA-ICP-MS. Gems & Gemology, 42(1), 4–21. DOI: 10.5741/gems.42.1.4.

    Cited in: Tourmaline Group

  3. Adamo, I. (2008). Aquamarine, Maxixe-Type Beryl, and Hydrothermal Synthetic Blue Beryl: Analysis and Identification. Gems & Gemology, 44(3). DOI: 10.5741/gems.44.3.214.

    Cited in: Colour Theory in Gemmology

  4. Anderson, B. (1966). Chromium as a Criterion for Emerald. Journal of Gemmology, 10(2), 41–45. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1966.10.2.41.

    Cited in: Chelsea Colour Filter

  5. Anderson, K.; Botto, R. (1992). The nature and fate of natural resins in the geosphere—II. Identification, classification and nomenclature of resinites. Organic Geochemistry, 18(6), 829–841. DOI: 10.1016/0146-6380(92)90051-x.

    Cited in: Amber

  6. Arif, M.; Moon, C. (2007). Nickel-rich chromian muscovite from the Indus suture ophiolite, NW Pakistan. Geochemical Journal, 41, 475–482. DOI: 10.2343/geochemj.41.475.

    Cited in: Swat Valley Emerald: Pakistan · Pakistan: Gem Origins Overview

  7. Ashbaugh, C. (1988). Gemstone Irradiation and Radioactivity. Gems & Gemology, 24(4), 196–213. DOI: 10.5741/gems.24.4.196.

    Cited in: Topaz

  8. Belley, P. (2024). Age Determination of Gem-Quality Green Vanadium Grossular (Var. Tsavorite) from the Neoproterozoic Metamorphic Mozambique Belt, Kenya and Tanzania. Crystals, 15(1), 9. DOI: 10.3390/cryst15010009.

    Cited in: Garnet Group

  9. Bexfield, C. (2020). Cobalt Glass-Filled Sapphires and the Chelsea Colour Filter: A New Technique. Journal of Gemmology, 37(4), 357–358. DOI: 10.15506/jog.2020.37.4.357.

    Cited in: Chelsea Colour Filter

  10. Bowersox, G.; Foord, E.; Laurs, B. (1991). Emeralds of the Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan. Gems & Gemology, 27(1), 26–39. DOI: 10.5741/gems.27.1.26.

    Cited in: Panjshir Emerald – Afghanistan

  11. Breeding, C.; Shigley, J. (2009). The 'Type' Classification System of Diamonds and Its Importance in Gemology. Gems & Gemology, 45(2), 96–111. DOI: 10.5741/gems.45.2.96.

    Cited in: Advanced Laboratory Instruments · Diamond Screening Instruments · The Spectroscope · The UV Lamp

  12. Breeding, C.; Shigley, J. (2009). The "Type" Classification System of Diamonds and Its Importance in Gemology. Gems & Gemology, 45(2), 96–111. DOI: 10.5741/gems.45.2.96.

    Cited in: Diamond · HPHT Diamond Treatment: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  13. Chahine, G.; Kapahi, A.; Choi, J.; Hsiao, C. (2016). Modeling of surface cleaning by cavitation bubble dynamics and collapse. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 29, 528-549. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2015.04.026.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  14. Chapin, M.; Pardieu, V.; Lucas, A. (2015). Mozambique: A Ruby Discovery for the 21st Century. Gems & Gemology, 51(1), 44–54. DOI: 10.5741/gems.51.1.44.

    Cited in: Mozambique – Montepuez Ruby and Paraíba Tourmaline

  15. Chauviré, B. (2015). Blue Spinel from the Luc Yen District of Vietnam. Gems & Gemology, 51(1), 2–17. DOI: 10.5741/gems.51.1.2.

    Cited in: Vietnam – Luc Yen Ruby and Cobalt-Blue Spinel

  16. Chauviré, B.; Mollé, V.; Guichard, F.; Rondeau, B.; Thomas, P.; Fritsch, E. (2023). Cracking of Gem Opals. Minerals, 13(3), 356. DOI: 10.3390/min13030356.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  17. Cheng, R.; Guo, Y. (2020). Study on the effect of heat treatment on amethyst color and the cause of coloration. Scientific Reports, 10(1). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71786-1.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  18. Claffy, E. (1953). Composition, tenebrescence and luminescence of spodumene minerals. American Mineralogist, 38, 919-931. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/ammin/article-abstract/38/11-12/919/539312/.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  19. Da Costa, G.; Sabioni, A.; Ferreira, A. (2000). Imperial topaz from Ouro Preto, Brazil. Journal of Gemmology, 27(3). DOI: 10.15506/jog.2000.27.3.133.

    Cited in: Brazil: Imperial Topaz and Emerald Sub-distinctions

  20. Delaunay, A. (2024). A new FTIR absorption band for identifying heat-treated metamorphic-type blue sapphires. Journal of Gemmology, 39(1), 33–46. DOI: 10.15506/jog.2024.39.1.33.

    Cited in: Treatment Disclosure & Ethics

  21. Du, X.; Hainschwang, T. (2010). X-Ray Computed Microtomography: Distinguishing Natural Pearls from Beaded and Non-Beaded Cultured Pearls. Gems & Gemology, 46(2), 128–134. DOI: 10.5741/gems.46.2.128.

    Cited in: Pearl

  22. Dubinsky, E. (2020). A Quantitative Description of the Causes of Color in Corundum. Gems & Gemology, 56(1). DOI: 10.5741/gems.56.1.2.

    Cited in: Chemical Properties · Colour Theory in Gemmology · Advanced Optical Properties · Optical Properties

  23. Eaton-Magaña, S. (2017). An Introduction to CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology, 53(3). DOI: 10.5741/gems.53.3.262.

    Cited in: Synthetic Gemstones · Gemstone Treatments · CVD Diamond Detection: Deep Diagnostic Reference · HPHT Diamond Treatment: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  24. Emmett, J.; Douthit, T. (1993). Heat Treating the Sapphires of Rock Creek, Montana. Gems & Gemology, 29(4), 250–272. DOI: 10.5741/gems.29.4.250.

    Cited in: Sri Lankan (Ceylon) Gems

  25. Emmett, J.; Scarratt, K.; McClure, S.; Moses, T.; Douthit, T.; Hughes, R.; Novak, S.; Shigley, J.; Wang, W.; Bordelon, O.; Kane, R. (2003). Beryllium Diffusion of Ruby and Sapphire. Gems & Gemology, 39(2), 84-135. DOI: 10.5741/gems.39.2.84.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  26. Emmett, J.; Scarratt, K. (2003). Beryllium Diffusion of Ruby and Sapphire. Gems & Gemology, 39(2), 84–135. DOI: 10.5741/gems.39.2.84.

    Cited in: Advanced Laboratory Instruments · Gemstone Treatments · Laboratory Reports · Beryllium Diffusion: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  27. Emmett, J.; Scarratt, K.; McClure, S.; Moses, T.; Douthit, T.; Hughes, R.; Novak, S.; Shigley, J.; Wang, W.; Bordelon, O.; Kane, R. (2003). Beryllium Diffusion of Ruby and Sapphire. Gems & Gemology, 39(2), 84–135. DOI: 10.5741/gems.39.2.84.

    Cited in: Corundum

  28. Emmett, J. (2023). Beryllium Diffusion and the Hole Chromophore in Corundum. Gems & Gemology, 59(3). DOI: 10.5741/gems.59.3.268.

    Cited in: Beryllium Diffusion: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  29. Farrimond, T. (1994). Hydrostatic measurement of specific gravity. Journal of Gemmology, 24(3), 161–163. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1994.24.3.161.

    Cited in: Specific Gravity Measurement

  30. Fisher, D.; Spits, R. (2000). Spectroscopic Evidence of GE POL HPHT-Treated Natural Type IIa Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, 36(1). DOI: 10.5741/gems.36.1.42.

    Cited in: Gemstone Treatments · Diamond · Natural vs Synthetic Indicators · HPHT Diamond Treatment: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  31. Fritsch, E.; Rossman, G. (1987). An Update on Color in Gems. Part 1. Gems & Gemology, 23(3), 126–139. DOI: 10.5741/gems.23.3.126.

    Cited in: The Spectroscope

  32. Fritsch, E.; Rossman, G. (1987). An Update on Color in Gems. Part 1: Introduction and Colors Caused by Dispersed Metal Ions. Gems & Gemology, 23(3), 126–139. DOI: 10.5741/gems.23.3.126.

    Cited in: Beryl · Chrysoberyl · Corundum · Feldspar Group · Garnet Group · Olivine (Peridot) · Pyroxene Group · Spinel · Tourmaline Group

  33. Fritsch, E.; Rossman, G. (1988). An Update on Color in Gems. Part 2: Colors Involving Multiple Atoms and Color Centers. Gems & Gemology, 24(1), 3–15. DOI: 10.5741/gems.24.1.3.

    Cited in: Corundum · Diamond · Quartz

  34. Fritsch, E.; Rossman, G. (1988). An Update on Color in Gems. Part 3: Colors Caused By Band Gaps and Physical Phenomena. Gems & Gemology, 24(2), 81–102. DOI: 10.5741/gems.24.2.81.

    Cited in: Diamond · Feldspar Group · Quartz

  35. Fritsch, E.; McClure, S.; Ostrooumov, M.; Andres, Y.; Moses, T.; Koivula, J.; Kammerling, R. (1999). The Identification of Zachery-Treated Turquoise. Gems & Gemology, 35(1), 4-16. DOI: 10.5741/gems.35.1.4.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  36. Giuliani, G. (2015). Fluid inclusions in ruby from Asian marble deposits. European Journal of Mineralogy. DOI: 10.1127/ejm/2015/0027-2442.

    Cited in: Cambodia – Pailin Sapphire and Battambang Ruby

  37. Giuliani, G.; Fallick, A.; Rakotondrazafy, M. (2015). Fluid inclusions in ruby from Asian marble deposits. European Journal of Mineralogy, 27, 441–455. DOI: 10.1127/ejm/2015/0027-2442.

    Cited in: Afghanistan: Gem Origins Overview · Hunza Ruby: Pakistan

  38. Giuliani, G.; Groat, L. (2019). Geology of Corundum and Emerald Gem Deposits: A Review. Gems & Gemology, 55(4), 464–489. DOI: 10.5741/gems.55.4.464.

    Cited in: Beryl · Corundum

  39. Grillo, M.; Goldberg, W.; Allemand, D. (1993). Skeleton and sclerite formation in the precious red coral Corallium rubrum. Marine Biology, 117(1), 119-128. DOI: 10.1007/bf00346433.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  40. Gübelin, E.; Graziani, G.; Kazmi, A. (1986). Pink Topaz from Pakistan. Gems & Gemology, 22(3), 140–148. DOI: 10.5741/gems.22.3.140.

    Cited in: Katlang Pink Topaz: Pakistan

  41. Guo, Y.; Renfro, N.; Sanchez-Garrido, C. (2020). Inclusion and Trace Element Characteristics of Emeralds from Swat Valley, Pakistan. Gems & Gemology, 56(3), 336–359. DOI: 10.5741/gems.56.3.336.

    Cited in: Swat Valley Emerald: Pakistan

  42. Hainschwang, T. (2012). Photoluminescence at 77K in treated diamond. Gems & Gemology, 48(4). DOI: 10.5741/gems.48.4.252.

    Cited in: Colour Theory in Gemmology

  43. Halbwachs, H. (2020). Detecting fungal spores and other palynomorphs in amber and copal by solvent treatment. Palynology, 44(3), 521-528. DOI: 10.1080/01916122.2019.1633436.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  44. Henn, U. (2021). Synthetic Moissanite Testing as 'Diamond' Using Diamond Testers. Journal of Gemmology, 37(8), 778–779. DOI: 10.15506/jog.2021.37.8.778.

    Cited in: Diamond Screening Instruments · Other Testing Tools

  45. Hoover, D. (2008). Magnetic susceptibility, a better approach to defining garnets. The Journal of Gemmology, 31(3). DOI: 10.15506/jog.2008.31.3.91.

    Cited in: Physical Properties

  46. Hoover, D. (2011). Determining Garnet Composition From Magnetic Susceptibility And Other Properties. Gems & Gemology, 47(4). DOI: 10.5741/gems.47.4.272.

    Cited in: Physical Properties

  47. Hughes, R.; Galibert, O.; Bosshart, G.; Ward, F.; Oo, T.; Smith, C.; Sun, T.; Harlow, G. (2000). Burmese Jade: The Inscrutable Gem. Gems & Gemology, 36(1), 2–26. DOI: 10.5741/gems.36.1.2.

    Cited in: Pyroxene Group

  48. Johnson, M.; Elen, S.; Muhlmeister, S. (1999). On the Identification of Various Emerald Filling Substances. Gems & Gemology, 35(2), 82-107. DOI: 10.5741/gems.35.2.82.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  49. Johnson, M. (2007). Durability Testing of Filled Emeralds. Gems & Gemology, 43(2), 120-137. DOI: 10.5741/gems.43.2.120.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  50. Kammerling, R.; Koivula, J. (1989). Thermal Alteration of Inclusions in "Rutilated" Topaz. Gems & Gemology, 25(3), 165-167. DOI: 10.5741/gems.25.3.165.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  51. Kammerling, R.; Koivula, J.; Kane, R.; Maddison, P.; Shigley, J.; Fritsch, E. (1991). Fracture Filling of Emeralds: Opticon and Traditional "Oils". Gems & Gemology, 27(2), 70-85. DOI: 10.5741/gems.27.2.70.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability · Beryl

  52. Kammerling, R. (1991). An Investigation of Emeralds from the Sandawana Mine, Zimbabwe. Gems & Gemology, 27(2). DOI: 10.5741/gems.27.2.70.

    Cited in: Gemstone Treatments · Grading and Valuation · Colombian Emerald · Feathers & Fingerprints

  53. Kammerling, R.; McClure, S.; Johnson, M.; Koivula, J.; Moses, T.; Fritsch, E.; Shigley, J. (1994). An Update on Filled Diamonds: Identification and Durability. Gems & Gemology, 30(3), 142-177. DOI: 10.5741/gems.30.3.142.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  54. Kane, R. (1990). Sapphire from Chanthaburi/Trat, Thailand. Gems & Gemology, 26(2). DOI: 10.5741/gems.26.2.115.

    Cited in: Gemstone Treatments · Silk & Needle Inclusions

  55. Kane, R. (1991). Rubies and Fancy Sapphires from Vietnam. Gems & Gemology, 27(3), 136–155. DOI: 10.5741/gems.27.3.136.

    Cited in: Vietnam – Luc Yen Ruby and Cobalt-Blue Spinel

  56. Karampelas, S. (2019). Gem-quality minerals: a review. Minerals, 9(9). DOI: 10.3390/min9090561.

    Cited in: The Spectroscope

  57. Karampelas, S.; Hauzenberger, C.; Peucat, J.; Fritsch, E. (2019). Emeralds from the Most Important Occurrences Worldwide: Chemical Fingerprinting by LA-ICP-MS. Minerals, 9(9), 561. DOI: 10.3390/min9090561.

    Cited in: Brazil: Imperial Topaz and Emerald Sub-distinctions · Colombian Emerald Mines – Sub-Distinctions · Zambian Emerald · Zimbabwe – Sandawana Emerald and Marange Diamond

  58. Karampelas, S.; Al-Shaybani, B.; Mohamed, F. (2019). Emeralds from the Most Important Occurrences: Chemical and Spectroscopic Data. Minerals, 9(9), 561. DOI: 10.3390/min9090561.

    Cited in: Panjshir Emerald – Afghanistan · Ural Emerald: Malyshevsky, Russia

  59. Kasipathi, P. (1996). Chrysoberyl from Visakhapatnam and East Godavari Districts, Andhra Pradesh. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 48(4). DOI: 10.17491/jgsi/1996/480412.

    Cited in: India – Alexandrite, Diamond (Panna), and Garnet

  60. Katsurada, Y. (2019). Geographic Origin Determination of Paraíba-Type Tourmaline. Gems & Gemology, 55(4), 648–659. DOI: 10.5741/gems.55.4.648.

    Cited in: Mozambique – Montepuez Ruby and Paraíba Tourmaline

  61. Keller, P. (1982). The Chanthaburi-Trat Gem Field, Thailand. Gems & Gemology, 18(4), 186–196. DOI: 10.5741/gems.18.4.186.

    Cited in: Cambodia – Pailin Sapphire and Battambang Ruby · Thailand – Gem Origins Overview · Thai Blue Zircon – Heat-Treatment Hub

  62. Keller, P. (1983). The Rubies of Burma: A Review of the Mogok Stone Tract. Gems & Gemology, 19(4), 209–219. DOI: 10.5741/gems.19.4.209.

    Cited in: Asterism (Star Effect)

  63. Khamloet, P.; Pisutha-Arnond, V.; Sutthirat, C. (2014). Mineral inclusions in sapphire from the basalt-related deposit in Bo Phloi, Kanchanaburi, western Thailand. Russian Geology and Geophysics. DOI: 10.1016/j.rgg.2014.08.004.

    Cited in: Thai Sapphire – Bo Phloi and Kanchanaburi Types

  64. Kiefert, L.; Hardy, G. (1999). Identification of filler substances in emerald gemstones by infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Gemmology, 26(8), 501–520. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1999.26.8.501.

    Cited in: Advanced Laboratory Instruments

  65. Kissin, A.; Murzin, V.; Karaseva, O. (2021). 'Horsetail' Inclusions in the Ural Demantoids: Growth Formations, Not Chrysotile. Minerals, 11(8), 825. DOI: 10.3390/min11080825.

    Cited in: Rare Madagascar Gems · Russian Demantoid Garnet: Ural Mountains

  66. Koivula, J. (1981). San Carlos Peridot. Gems & Gemology, 17(4), 205–215. DOI: 10.5741/gems.17.4.205.

    Cited in: USA – Gem Origins Overview

  67. Koivula, J.; Kammerling, R.; Fritsch, E.; Fryer, C.; Hargett, D.; Kane, R. (1989). The Characteristics and Identification of Filled Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, 25(2), 68-83. DOI: 10.5741/gems.25.2.68.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  68. Kovalchuk, O. (2021). "Horsetail" Inclusions in the Ural Demantoids: Growth Formations. Minerals, 11(8), 825. DOI: 10.3390/min11080825.

    Cited in: Garnet Group

  69. Krebs, M. (2020). Expanding the Trace Element Suite for Ruby Origin Determination. Minerals, 10(5), 447. DOI: 10.3390/min10050447.

    Cited in: Mozambique – Montepuez Ruby and Paraíba Tourmaline

  70. Krebs, M.; Pearson, D.; Stern, R.; Böttcher, M. (2020). An expanded trace element and Sr–Pb isotope study of ruby and sapphire geographic origins. Minerals, 10(5), 447. DOI: 10.3390/min10050447.

    Cited in: Montana Sapphire: Yogo Gulch, Rock Creek, Missouri River

  71. Krzemnicki, M. (1999). Diopside needles as inclusions in demantoid garnet from Russia. Gems & Gemology, 35(4), 192–195. DOI: 10.5741/gems.35.4.192.

    Cited in: Russian Demantoid Garnet: Ural Mountains

  72. Laskovenkov, A.; Zhernakov, V. (1995). The Ural Emerald Mines. Gems & Gemology, 31(2), 106–115. DOI: 10.5741/gems.31.2.106.

    Cited in: Ural Emerald: Malyshevsky, Russia

  73. Le Thi-Thu Huong (2012). Gemstones from Vietnam: An Update. Gems & Gemology, 48(3), 158–176. DOI: 10.5741/gems.48.3.158.

    Cited in: Vietnam – Luc Yen Ruby and Cobalt-Blue Spinel

  74. Lim, H. (2010). Discrimination of natural and HPHT-treated Type IIa diamonds by photoluminescence spectroscopy. Diamond and Related Materials, 19(10), 1254–1258. DOI: 10.1016/j.diamond.2010.06.007.

    Cited in: Advanced Laboratory Instruments

  75. Liu, Y. (2022). Color Mechanism and Spectroscopic Thermal Variation of Pink Spinel from Kuh-i-Lal, Tajikistan. Gems & Gemology, 58(3), 338–354. DOI: 10.5741/gems.58.3.338.

    Cited in: Tajikistan – Kuh-i-Lal Spinel (Balas Ruby)

  76. Lo Giudice, A.; Angelici, D.; Re, A. (2016). Protocol for lapis lazuli provenance determination: evidence for Afghan origin. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. DOI: 10.1007/s12520-016-0430-0.

    Cited in: Lapis Lazuli: Sar-e-Sang, Afghanistan

  77. Malsy, A.; Klemm, L. (2010). Distinction of Gem Spinels from the Himalayan Mountain Belt. CHIMIA International Journal for Chemistry, 64(10), 741–745. DOI: 10.2533/chimia.2010.741.

    Cited in: Tajikistan – Kuh-i-Lal Spinel (Balas Ruby)

  78. Martin, D. (1987). Gemstone Durability: Design to Display. Gems & Gemology, 23(2), 63-77. DOI: 10.5741/gems.23.2.63.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  79. Martineau, P. (2004). Identification of Synthetic Diamond Grown Using Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). Gems & Gemology, 40(1). DOI: 10.5741/gems.40.1.2.

    Cited in: Synthetic Gemstones · Gemstone Treatments · Natural vs Synthetic Indicators · CVD Diamond Detection: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  80. McClure, S.; Smith, C.; Wang, W.; Hall, M. (2006). Identification and Durability of Lead Glass-Filled Rubies. Gems & Gemology, 42(1), 22-36. DOI: 10.5741/gems.42.1.22.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  81. McClure, S.; Smith, C.; Wang, W. (2006). Identification and Durability of Lead Glass-Filled Rubies. Gems & Gemology, 42(1). DOI: 10.5741/gems.42.1.22.

    Cited in: Gemstone Treatments · Treatment Disclosure & Ethics · Lead Glass-Filled Ruby: Deep Diagnostic Reference

  82. McClure, S.; Shen, A. (2008). Coated Tanzanite. Gems & Gemology, 44(2), 142-147. DOI: 10.5741/gems.44.2.142.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  83. McClure, S.; Kane, R.; Sturman, N. (2010). Gemstone Enhancement and Its Detection in the 2000s. Gems & Gemology, 46(3), 218-240. DOI: 10.5741/gems.46.3.218.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  84. Miura, Y.; Tomisaka, T.; Kato, A. (1975). Labradorescence and the ideal behavior of thicknesses of alternate lamellae in the Bøggild intergrowth. Mineralogical Journal, 7(6), 526–541. DOI: 10.2465/minerj1953.7.526.

    Cited in: Labradorescence

  85. Munsterman, D.; Kerstholt, S. (1996). Sodium polytungstate, a new non-toxic alternative to bromoform in heavy liquid separation. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 91, 417–422. DOI: 10.1016/0034-6667(95)00093-3.

    Cited in: Specific Gravity Measurement

  86. Nassau, K.; Wood, D. (1973). Examination of Maxixe-Type Blue and Green Beryl. The Journal of Gemmology, 13(8), 296-301. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1973.13.8.296.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  87. Nassau, K.; Prescott, B. (1977). Smoky, blue, greenish yellow, and other irradiation-related colors in quartz. Mineralogical Magazine, 41(319). DOI: 10.1180/minmag.1977.041.319.01.

    Cited in: Colour Theory in Gemmology

  88. Nassau, K. (1981). Artificially Induced Color in Amethyst-Citrine Quartz. Gems & Gemology, 17(1), 37-39. DOI: 10.5741/gems.17.1.37.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  89. Nassau, K.; Prescott, B. (1981). Nonfading Maxixe-Type Beryl?. Gems & Gemology, 17(4), 217-219. DOI: 10.5741/gems.17.4.217.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  90. Nassau, K. (1981). Raman Spectroscopy as a Gemstone Test. Journal of Gemmology, 17(5), 306–320. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1981.17.5.306.

    Cited in: Advanced Laboratory Instruments

  91. Nassau, K. (1981). Heat Treating Ruby and Sapphire: Technical Aspects. Gems & Gemology, 17(3). DOI: 10.5741/gems.17.3.121.

    Cited in: Gemstone Treatments · Silk & Needle Inclusions · Solid Inclusions

  92. Nassau, K. (1981). Heat Treating Ruby and Sapphire: Technical Aspects. Gems & Gemology, 17(3), 121–131. DOI: 10.5741/gems.17.3.121.

    Cited in: Corundum

  93. Nassau, K. (1985). Altering the Color of Topaz. Gems & Gemology, 21(1), 26-34. DOI: 10.5741/gems.21.1.26.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  94. Nassau, K.; Valente, G. (1987). The Seven Types of Yellow Sapphire and their Stability to Light. Gems & Gemology, 23(4), 222-231. DOI: 10.5741/gems.23.4.222.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  95. Nassau, K. (1994). More on the antiquity of emerald oiling. The Journal of Gemmology, 24(2), 109-110. DOI: 10.15506/jog.1994.24.2.109.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  96. Neumeyer, B.; Hensler, J.; O'Mullane, A.; Bhargava, S. (2009). A facile chemical screening method for the detection of stress corrosion cracking in 9 carat gold alloys. Gold Bulletin, 42(3), 209-214. DOI: 10.1007/bf03214936.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  97. Newton, R. (1965). The Thermal Stability of Zoisite. The Journal of Geology, 73(3), 431-441. DOI: 10.1086/627075.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  98. Nicol, L.; Giuliani, G.; Ulianov, A. (2022). Pressure-Temperature-Fluid Constraints for the Halo-Shakiso Emerald Deposit, Ethiopia. The Canadian Mineralogist, 60(3), 417–438. DOI: 10.3749/canmin.2000069.

    Cited in: Ethiopia – Wollo Opal and Shakiso Emerald

  99. O'Donoghue, M. (1971). Trapiche Emerald. Journal of Gemmology, 12(8). DOI: 10.15506/jog.1971.12.8.329.

    Cited in: Colombian Emerald Mines – Sub-Distinctions

  100. Palke, A.; Renfro, N.; Berg, R. (2018). A common origin for Thai/Cambodian rubies and blue and violet sapphires from Yogo Gulch, Montana, USA. American Mineralogist. DOI: 10.2138/am-2018-6164.

    Cited in: Montana Sapphire: Yogo Gulch, Rock Creek, Missouri River

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    Cited in: The Microscope

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    Cited in: Synthetic Gemstones · Feathers & Fingerprints · Fluid Inclusions · Natural vs Synthetic Indicators · Inclusions Overview · Solid Inclusions

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    Cited in: Synthetic Gemstones · Natural vs Synthetic Indicators · Growth Features

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    Cited in: Grading and Valuation · Kashmir Sapphire · Origin Determination Overview · Tajikistan – Kuh-i-Lal Spinel (Balas Ruby) · Corundum · Growth Features · Silk & Needle Inclusions · Solid Inclusions

  9. Hughes, R. (2017). Ruby & Sapphire: A Gemologist's Guide. RWH Publishing. ISBN: 978-0-9645097-6-4.

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    Cited in: Chelsea Colour Filter · The Dichroscope · The Polariscope · Chemical Properties · Colour Theory in Gemmology · Advanced Crystallography · Advanced Optical Properties · Optical Properties · Physical Properties · Twin Laws in Gemmology · Adularescence · Chatoyancy (Cat's Eye Effect) · Iridescence · Play of Colour

  16. Read, P. (2008). Gemmology (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN: 9780750664493. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224.

    Cited in: Grading and Valuation · Sri Lankan (Ceylon) Gems · Colombian Emerald · Amber · Beryl · Amphibole Group (Nephrite) · Chrysoberyl · Coral · Corundum · Diamond · Feldspar Group · Garnet Group · Jet · Olivine (Peridot) · Pearl · Opal · Pyroxene Group · Spinel · Quartz · Topaz · Tourmaline Group · Zircon · Zoisite

  17. Read, P. (2012). Gemmology (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN: 9781136000102. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224.

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  18. Read, P. (2012). Hardness (3rd ed.). Gemmology, Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224-11.

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  19. Read, P. (2012). Cleavage, Parting and Fracture (3rd ed.). Gemmology, Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224-10.

    Cited in: Gem Care and Durability

  20. Read, P. (2014). Gemmology (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN: 978-0-08-050722-4. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224.

    Cited in: Conoscopic Observation and Interference Figures · The Dichroscope · The Microscope · Other Testing Tools · Gem Testing Equipment Overview · The Polariscope · The Refractometer · Specific Gravity Measurement · The Spectroscope · The UV Lamp · Chemical Properties · Colour Theory in Gemmology · Crystal Systems · Advanced Crystallography · Optic Sign Determination · Advanced Optical Properties · Optical Properties · Physical Properties · Twin Laws in Gemmology · Adularescence · Asterism (Star Effect) · Aventurescence · Chatoyancy (Cat's Eye Effect) · Colour Change · Iridescence · Labradorescence · Optical Phenomena Overview · Play of Colour · Lapis Lazuli: Sar-e-Sang, Afghanistan · Brazilian Aquamarine & Topaz · Brazilian Emerald · Brazilian Tourmaline · Lightning Ridge Black Opal · Queensland Boulder Opal · White Opal & Crystal Opal · Burmese Jadeite · Burmese Spinel · Tanzanite · Mahenge Spinel · Tsavorite Garnet · Madagascar Beryl · Madagascar Sapphire · Russian Alexandrite: Tokovaya District, Ural Mountains · Katlang Pink Topaz: Pakistan · Thailand – Gem Origins Overview · Thai Blue Zircon – Heat-Treatment Hub

  21. Read, P. (2014). Gemmology (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. DOI: 10.4324/9780080507224.

    Cited in: Composite Stones · Synthetic Gemstones · Feathers & Fingerprints · Fluid Inclusions · Natural vs Synthetic Indicators · Growth Features · Inclusions Overview · Surface Features

  22. Schumann, W. (2009). Gemstones of the World (4th ed.). Sterling Publishing. ISBN: 978-1-4027-6829-3.

    Cited in: Composite Stones · Solid Inclusions

  23. Schumann, W. (2009). Gemstones of the World (4th ed.). Sterling Publishing. ISBN: 978-1-4027-6829-3.

    Cited in: Sri Lankan (Ceylon) Gems

  24. Schumann, W. (2009). Gemstones of the World (4th ed.). Sterling. ISBN: 978-1-4027-6829-3.

    Cited in: Adularescence · Asterism (Star Effect) · Aventurescence · Chatoyancy (Cat's Eye Effect) · Colour Change · Iridescence · Labradorescence · Play of Colour · Brazilian Aquamarine & Topaz · Brazilian Emerald · Brazilian Gems - Overview · Paraíba Tourmaline · Brazilian Tourmaline · Argyle Diamonds · Lightning Ridge Black Opal · Queensland Boulder Opal · Australian Gems - Overview · Australian Sapphire · White Opal & Crystal Opal · Burmese Jadeite · Burmese Spinel · East African Gems - Overview · Tanzanite · Mahenge Spinel · Tsavorite Garnet · Madagascar Beryl · Madagascar Gems - Overview · Rare Madagascar Gems · Pakistan: Gem Origins Overview · Russian Alexandrite: Tokovaya District, Ural Mountains · Russia: Ural Gem Deposits Overview · USA – Gem Origins Overview

  25. Schumann, W. (2013). Gemstones of the World (5th ed.). Sterling Publishing. ISBN: 978-1-4027-6829-3.

    Cited in: Optical Properties · Physical Properties

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  21. Gemological Institute of America (1931). About GIA: History. Gemological Institute of America. Retrieved 2026-05-11, from https://www.gia.edu/about-GIA/history

    Cited in: Laboratory Reports

  22. Gemological Institute of America (2007). GIA Report Check. Gemological Institute of America. Retrieved 2026-05-11, from https://www.gia.edu/report-check

    Cited in: Laboratory Reports

  23. Gemological Institute of America (2020). GIA Alumni Association Code of Ethics. Gemological Institute of America. Retrieved 2026-05-11, from https://www.gia.edu/alumni

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  24. Global Witness (1995). Rough Trade: The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict. Global Witness Ltd.. https://www.globalwitness.org

    Cited in: Cambodia – Pailin Sapphire and Battambang Ruby

  25. Global Witness (2009). Marange Diamond Fields: Human Rights Concerns and Kimberley Process. Global Witness Ltd.. Retrieved 2026-05-12, from https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/conflict-diamonds/marange-diamond-field-zimbabwe/

    Cited in: Zimbabwe – Sandawana Emerald and Marange Diamond

  26. GRS GemResearch Swisslab (2004). GRS Type Colour Reference: Pigeon Blood Ruby Criteria. GRS GemResearch Swisslab. Retrieved 2026-05-11, from https://www.grs.ch/en/reports/colour-grades

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  27. Gübelin Gem Lab (2024). Gübelin Gem Lab — About. Gübelin Gem Lab. Retrieved 2026-05-12, from https://www.gubelingemlab.com

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  28. Royal Collection Trust (2023). The Black Prince's Ruby — Imperial State Crown. Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 2026-05-12, from https://www.rct.uk/collection/31726/imperial-state-crown

    Cited in: Tajikistan – Kuh-i-Lal Spinel (Balas Ruby)

  29. Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF) (1972). About SSEF: History and Research. Swiss Gemmological Institute. Retrieved 2026-05-11, from https://www.ssef.ch/about/

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Standards

  1. Australian Government (2010). Australian Consumer Law (Schedule 2 to the Competition and Consumer Act 2010). https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2020C00226.

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  2. CIBJO (2020). The Gemstone Book: CIBJO Blue Book. World Jewellery Confederation (CIBJO). https://cibjo.org/download/cibjo-standards/.

    Cited in: Treatment Disclosure & Ethics · Professional Practice

  3. European Parliament and Council (2005). Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning Unfair Business-to-Consumer Commercial Practices. Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32005L0029.

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  4. Federal Trade Commission (2018). Guides for the Jewelry, Precious Metals, and Pewter Industries. US Federal Trade Commission. https://www.ftc.gov/legal-library/browse/rules/guides-jewelry-precious-metals-pewter-industries.

    Cited in: Treatment Disclosure & Ethics · Professional Practice

  5. Gem-A (2023). Foundation Programme Course Notes. Gemmological Association of Great Britain.

    Cited in: Chemical Properties · Physical Properties · Grading and Valuation

  6. International Colored Gemstone Association (2015). ICA Treatment Disclosure Policy. https://www.gemstone.org/trade-ethics.

    Cited in: Treatment Disclosure & Ethics

  7. International Organization for Standardization (2009). ISO 3664:2009 — Graphic Technology and Photography: Viewing Conditions. ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/43234.html.

    Cited in: Grading and Valuation

  8. International Organization for Standardization (2015). ISO 18323:2015 — Jewellery: Consumer Confidence in the Jewellery Industry. ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/62337.html.

    Cited in: Professional Practice

  9. Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (2010). LMHC Standards and Terminology for the Description of Treatments in Coloured Gemstones. LMHC. https://www.lmhc-gemmology.org.

    Cited in: Laboratory Reports · Sri Lankan (Ceylon) Gems · Colombian Emerald · Origin Determination Overview

  10. UK Ministry of Justice (2023). Civil Procedure Rules Part 35: Experts and Assessors. HMSO. https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/part35.

    Cited in: Professional Practice

  11. UK Parliament (1980). Limitation Act 1980. HMSO. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1980/58.

    Cited in: Professional Practice

  12. UK Parliament (2008). Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 (SI 2008/1277). HMSO. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2008/1277.

    Cited in: Professional Practice

  13. UK Parliament (2015). Consumer Rights Act 2015. HMSO. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/15.

    Cited in: Professional Practice